Abstract Affine quantization, a parallel procedure to canonical quantization, needs to use its principal quantum operators, specifically D=(PQ+ QP)/ 2 and Q ≠ 0 , to represent appropriate kinetic factors, such as P , which involves only one canonical quantum operator. The need for this requirement stems from path integral quantizations of selected problems that affine quantization can solve but canonical quantization fails to solve. This task is resolved for simple examples, as well as examples that involve scalar, and vector, quantum field theories.

Abstract In this paper, we have calculated the angle of refraction that light travels ap proaching to the strong gravitational field like a black hole by combining the general relativity and the classical Snell’s law, assuming that the gravitational field can act as a non-vacuum filled with medium of some coefficients. We have found that the value of refracted angle exactly coincides with the value from the Einstein’s relativity theory in a weak gravitational field. From this optical interpretation of the traveling of light near a black hole, we have sug gested that there might have the reflection phenomenon and investigated that the total reflection occurs at the surface of a black hole. Regardless this might cause controversy, we can explain the recent observation that light reflects from a black hole.

Abstract Based on a comprehensive review of mainly the non-quantum aspects of the standard model of cosmology, the 5 dimensional models, and the analysis here, we propose a 5 dimensional model with expanding 4D multi-branes. A review of the standard model in the context of many new developments and discoveries in cosmology in the recent times, such as the accelerated expan sion of the universe, Plank cosmic microwave measurements, dark energy survey, Hubble tension etc. tends to indicate that the standard model is essen tially a patchwork of different theoretical models that have been pieced to gether in an attempt to explain different aspects of the astrophysical observa tions, which do not necessarily emanate from a full end-to-end understand ing of a physical process. The purpose of each individual theoretical piece such as “inflation” is limited to providing an explanation to the problem area or a gap in our understanding. A number of new theories such as the five dimensional universe, the bulk and brane, extended theories of gravity, and conformal cyclic cosmology offer alternate ways of addressing the existential aspects of the universe but these models too remain hypothetical with short comings and a lack of conclusive evidence. The model proposed by us, presents a way forward in addressing dark matter and dark energy as manifestations of the multiple underlying branes in the aftermath of the big-bang. In the process, we present a theorem of the dimensionality of the expanding universe, which necessitates the need for at least one more dimension in addition to the 4 di mensions of spacetime. While carrying out the review of the standard model, we present new analysis and facts that strengthen the case for the 5th dimen sion. According to the multi-brane hypothesis presented here, our observed universe could be one of the many branes, and it is more likely than not that in the aftermath of the big-bang that generated our brane, more branes were generated, which further points towards a much more prolonged big-bang event than what has been the perception so far.

Abstract This paper indicated that Newton’s law of gravitation is a statistical relation of two adjacent objects with a distance and Einstein’s general relativity shows the internal connection of material distribution through space-time warping in our universe so general relativity is referred as a gravity theory. Here the paper gives an extension of general relativity in the sense of the metric theory of gravity which is consistent with Einstein’s equivalence principle and gene rates a weak field approximation which extends Newtonian dynamics. Thus, the extended theory of gravity can infer that the light has a speed limit ofphoton escaping the mass inertia of a star.

Abstract Affine quantization is a parallel procedure to canonical quantization, which is ideally suited to deal with special problems. Vector affine quantization intro duces multiple degrees of freedom which find that working together creates novel tools suitable to eliminate typical difficulties encountered in more con ventional approaches.

Abstract This research work is related to soliton solutions considered as models that can describe the complex configuration of elementary particles from the study of the interactions of their fields. It is interested in the interaction of fields between two different elementary particles by expressing their physical properties. For that, we have obtained, exact static plane symmetric soli ton-like solutions to the nonlinear equations of interacting electromagnetic and scalar fields taking into account the own gravitational field of elementary particles using the calibrated invariance function P I( ) . It has been proved that all solutions of the Einstein, nonlinear electromagnetic and scalar field equations are regular with the localized energy density. Moreover, the total charge of particles is finite and the total energy of the interaction fields is bounded. It have been emphasized the importance to the own gravitational field of elementary particles and the role of the nonlinearity of fields in the determination of these solutions. In flat space-time, soliton-like solutions ex ist but the total energy of the interaction fields is equal to zero. We have also shown that in the linear case, soliton-like solutions are absent.

Abstract In this paper, we have used the static spherical symmetric metric. The para meter of the nonlinearity fields is included in the arbitrary function characte rizing the interaction between the electromagnetic and scalar fields. Taking into account the own gravitational field of elementary particles, we have ob tained exact static spherical symmetric solutions to the electromagnetic and scalar field equations of nonlinear induction. Considering all forms of the so lution of Liouville equation, we proved that the metric functions are regular with localized energy density. Moreover, the total energy of the nonlinear in duction fields is bounded and the total charge of the elementary particles has a finite value (soliton-like). In the flat space-time, soliton-like solutions exist.

Abstract The Law of Lepton Conservation Number tells us that whenever electrons ra diate energy in the form of photons, the photon radiation must be accompa nied by electron neutrinos. Synchrotrons such as the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS 11) at Brookhaven National Laboratory or the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Light Source (SSRL) would be excellent sources for producing abundant neutrinos for neutrino detection studies. Bremsstrahlung (electron breaking mechanism) is the process that explains energy jets as ob served being given out from Active Galactic Nuclei and Pulsars.

Abstract Unidentified Infrared emission bands (UIBs) are infrared discrete emissions from circumstellar regions, interstellar media (ISM), star-forming regions, and extragalactic objects for which the identity of the emitting materials is unknown. The main infrared features occur around peaks at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, 11.2, and 12.7 μm with the photon’s rest energy at the peaks 0.376, 0.200, 0.161, 0.144, 0.111, and 0.098 eV, respectively. The UIB emission phenomenon has been studied for about forty five years. The prevailing hypothesis is that the materials responsible for UIB are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules. PAHs are thought to be one of the main forms in which carbon exists in space. And yet, not a single member of this group of compounds had been identified in space definitively until now [1]. In frames of Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM), we introduced Dark Matter (DM) particles, named DIONs, with the rest energy 0.199 eV and an energy density of 68.8% of the total energy density of the World. DIONs compose Outer shells of DM Supercluster’s Cores—the main objects of the World [2]. In this paper, we give an explanation of UIB emission based on the self-annihilation of DM particles DIONs and biDIONs (DIONs pairs) with a rest energy about 0.38 eV that depends on the binding energy. To the best of our knowledge, WUM is the only cosmological model in existence that is consistent with UIB emission phenomenon.

Abstract The Void is different from the vacuum space of our Universe because it has “nothing” in it, no space, no time, no mass, and no charge. It only has Pure Energy. The only particles that have no space, no time, no mass, and no charge are photons and hence the Void is filled with photons of different Energy levels separated from one another by quantum numbers n. The Energy from within the Void is the source of all creation and annihilation. Each Universe of the Multiverse is created in parts that are joined together by gravity. Dark (Photon) Energy creates one part of the first dimension, two parts of the second dimension, three parts of the third dimension, four parts of the fourth dimension and so on, parts that are brought together to complete the formation of that dimensional Universe by means of a Big Bang; just as the Big Bang brought 3, 3-D parts created by 3, 2-D Universes together to form our 3-D Universe.

Abstract In recent works, a construction was proposed resulting in emergent universes inside black holes. This result can be obtained from a 4D black hole embedded in a 5D spacetime with the fifth dimension compactified on a circle [0, 2] (0 and 2 are identified) such that the two branes are at 0 and 1. In the present work, we study this setup by deriving particles’ equations of motion in the new universes, based on redefining energy and angular momentum. This leads to disappearance of the singularity in centers of black holes in classical General Relativity.

Abstract Today's quantum field theory (QFT) relies heavenly on canonical quantization (CQ), which fails for 4 ϕ4 leading only to a “free” result. Affine quantization (AQ), an alternative quantization procedure, leads to a “non-free” result for the same model. Perhaps adding AQ to CQ can improve the quantization of a wide class of problems in QFT.

Abstract If there exists a null gradient field in 3 + 1 dimensional space-time, we can set up a kind of light-cone coordinate system in the space-time. In such coordinate system, the metric takes a simple form, which is helpful for simplifying and solving the Einstein’s field equation. This light-cone coordinate system has wonderful properties and has been used widely in astrophysics to calculate parameters. We discuss the structure of space-time with light-cone coordinate system in detail. We show how to construct the light-cone coordinate system and obtain the conditions of its existence, and then explain their geometrical and physical meanings.

Abstract The genesis of physical particles is essentially a mystery. Quantum field theory creation operators provide an abstract mechanism by which particles come into existence, but quantum fields do not possess energy density. I reference several recent treatments of this problem and develop ideas based on self-stabilizing field structures with focus on higher order self-induced self-stabilizing field structures. I extend this treatment in this paper to related issues of topological charge.

Abstract A half-harmonic oscillator, which gets its name because the position coordinate is strictly positive, has been quantized and determined that it was a physically correct quantization. This positive result was found using affine quantization (AQ). The main purpose of this paper is to compare results of this new quantization procedure with those of canonical quantization (CQ). Using Ashtekar-like classical variables and CQ, we quantize the same toy model. While these two quantizations lead to different results, they both would reduce to the same classical Hamiltonian if → 0 . Since these two quantizations have differing results, only one of the quantizations can be physically correct.Two brief sections also illustrate how AQ can correctly help quantum gravity and the quantization of most field theory problems.

Abstract We present a simple way to approach the hard problem of quantization of the gravitational field in four-dimensional space-time, due to non-linearity of the Einstein equations. The difficulty may be overcome when the cosmological constant is non-null. Treating the cosmological contribution as the energy-momentum of vacuum, and representing the metric tensor onto the tetrad of its eigenvectors, the corresponding energy-momentum and, consequently, the Hamiltonian are easily quantized assuming a correspondence rule according to which the eigenvectors are replaced by creation and annihilation operators for the gravitational field. So the geometric Einstein tensor, which is opposite in sign respect to the vacuum energy-momentum (plus the possible known matter one), is also quantized. Physical examples provided by Schwarzschild-De Sitter, Robertson-Walker-De Sitter and Kerr-De Sitter solutions are examined.

Abstract The action of gravitons in a binary star system is modelled as the locus of points on an ellipse synchronous to the elliptic orbit of the binary star. In their interaction between the masses in the system the rotational energy of the gravitons is reduced by gravitational redshift, which accounts for the decay of the binary star orbital period. This model is able to fit a broad range of eccentricities of binary pulsar orbits and orbital period decay comparable to the General Relativistic gravitational wave model.

Abstract The treatment of parity violations in the weak nuclear interactions is discussed within the frameworks of both the Standard Model (SM) and the Generation Model (GM) of particle physics. It will be demonstrated that several important differences between these two models lead to the SM merely describing the parity violations, while the GM provides an understanding of the cause of the parity violations in weak nuclear interactions. The significant differences arising from several dubious assumptions made during the development of the SM, lead to very different conclusions concerning the nature of the parity violations in the two models. While the SM is able to describe the observed parity violations in terms of a “V-A” theory of the weak nuclear interactions, the GM is also able to demonstrate the cause of the observed parity violations: in the GM, the observed parity violations arise as a consequence of the negative intrinsic parity of both the W massive bosons, which mediate these so-called charge-changing (CC) weak nuclear interactions.

Abstract In Part 1 of this work, we showed that our new model of cosmology can account for the origin of all cosmic structures ranging in size from stars up to superclusters. In this model, at the time of nucleosynthesis, an imprint embedded in the vacuum regulated the creation of the protons (and electrons) that later made up the structures. Immediately after nucleosynthesis and for a considerable period afterward, the evolution was completely determined by the expansion of the universe. Gradually, however, gravitational influences became more important until finally, the expansion of the structures-to-be ceased at their zero velocity points. Stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters all reached their zero velocity points more or less simultaneously at the usually accepted time of the beginning of galaxy formation. From that point onward, the evolution gravitation came to dominate the evolution although the expansion still exerted its influence. In this paper, we examine the subsequent cluster evolution in some detail. We establish the conditions required to prevent a free-fall collapse of the clusters and then show that galaxies with quasar-like active nuclei located within the cluster were the sources of the necessary radiation. We also show that the required galactic supermassive black holes were a consequence of the initial free-fall collapse of all galaxies.

Abstract An extended Newtonian gravitation (ENG) model was developed to explain the rotation curves in galaxies and galaxy clusters. ENG requires the knowledge of a parameter that is a function of the mass of the gravitational source. An approximate eq. for that parameter was obtained (for disk galaxies) that yields asymptotic speeds close to binned measured data. ENG yielded larger circular speeds for galaxy clusters when compared with the MOND results. A classical gravito-electromagnetic model (which neither is based on Einstein GR, nor on gravito-magnetism only) was developed which yielded asymptotic circular speeds very small compared to experimental results. However when ENG was used to develop an extended gravito-electromagnetic model, it yielded results compatible with MOND results for simulated galaxies and larger than MOND results for a simulated galaxy cluster. This model showed measurable increase in the circular speed when compared to ENG alone in the galaxy cluster. The need for modifying the Einstein field equation to address the dark matter problem in the framework of the ENG model was illustrated.

Abstract The results of measurements of the Hubble constant H0, which characterizes the expansion rate of the universe, show that the values of H0 vary significantly depending on Methodology. The disagreement in the values of H0 obtained by the various teams far exceeds the standard uncertainties provided with the values. This discrepancy is called the Hubble Tension. In this paper, we discuss Macrostructures of the World (Superclusters and Galaxies); explain their Origin and Evolution in frames of the developed Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM), which is an alternative to the prevailing Big Bang Model (BBM) [1]; and provide the explanation of the Hubble Tension. The main difference between WUM and BBM is: Instead of the Infinite Homogeneous and Isotropic Universe around the Initial Singularity in BBM, in WUM, the 3D Finite Boundless World (a Hypersphere) presents a Patchwork Quilt of different Luminous Superclusters (103), which emerged in various places of the World at different Cosmological times. In WUM, the Medium of the World is Homogeneous and Isotropic. The distribution of Macro objectsin the World is spatially Inhomogeneous and Anisotropic and temporally Non-simultaneous.

Abstract The existence of the neutron, originally postulated to justify the stability of the nucleus, is very similar to the postulation of Dark Matter to give stability to galaxies and galaxy clusters. However, the existence of the neutron has been proven as an important part of the nucleus that is linked within its integral structure in the Standard Model of Particle Physics. The Standard Model that began with the electron and the proton, currently, with more than one hundred particles, shows in some parts, cracks that induce to reconsider the veracity of the theories and models. Here it is established that all theories are to some extent false and therefore, so will any model, which is always a specific part of the theory. Also, like several other things, by means of a mathematical calculation, it is clarified why, it has not been possible to incorporate the Dark Matter within the Standard Model. Furthermore, it is reliably demonstrated that the introduction of the Dark matter postulate is superfluous and that the high speeds of stellar rotation determined experimentally are analytically explained with the stellar dynamics described here.

Abstract The unification of gravity and electricity since the early 20th century and the unification of four fundamental forces since the 1970s have become a mainstream of physical study by using different theories and methods. This paper introduces a dynamical approach to respectively reveal the physical natures of gravity and electricity as well as strong and weak forces. The results showed that the nature of gravity is associated with dynamical product of mass-energy linear distributions between two adjacent objects and the nature of electricity is associated with a dynamical product of mass-energy linear distributions between two adjacent unlike charges. Potential nuclear energies are mathematically shown by the products of mass-energy linear distributions between proton-neutron particles as well as hadron-lepton particles, which are also initially generated through external perpendicular forces with the maximum efficiency. Thus, four kinds of potential mass-energy space-time distribution rather than four long- and short-range forces showed a common mathematical expression or similarity among them by using this approach.

Abstract Assuming a two-component, positive and negative mass, superfluid/supersolid for space (the Winterberg model), we model the Higgs field as a condensate made up of a positive and a negative mass, planckion pair. The connection is shown to be consistent (compatible) with the underlying field equations for each field, and the continuity equation is satisfied for both species of planckions, as well as for the Higgs field. An inherent length scale for space (the vacuum) emerges, which we estimate from previous work to be of the order of,l l + − (0 0 5.032E 19 meters ) = = − ( ) , for an undisturbed (unperturbed) vacuum. Thus we assume a lattice structure for space, made up of overlapping positive and negative mass wave functions, ψ + , and, ψ − , which together bind to form the Higgs field, giving it its rest mass of 125.35 Gev/c2 with a coherence length equal to its Compton wavelength. If the vacuum experiences an extreme disturbance, such as in a LHC pp collision, it is conjectured that severe dark energy results, on a localized level, with a partial disintegration of the Higgs force field in the surrounding space. The Higgs boson as a quantum excitation in this field results when the vacuum reestablishes itself, within 10−22 seconds, with positive and negative planckion mass number densities equalizing in the disturbed region. Using our fundamental equation relating the Higgs field, ϕ , to the planckion ψ + and ψ − wave functions, we calculate the overall vacuum pressure (equal to vacuum energy density), as well as typical ψ + and ψ − displacements from equilibrium within the vacuum.

Abstract We discuss the Oppenheimer-Snyder-Datt (OSD) solution from a new perspective, introduce a completely new formulation of the problem exclusively in external Schwarzschild space-time (ESM) and present a new treatment of the singularities in this new formulation. We also give a new Newtonian approximation of the problem. Furthermore, we present new numerical solutions of the modified OSD-model and of the ball-to-ball-collapse with 4 different numerical methods.